工業(yè)革命對(duì)農(nóng)業(yè)有什么影響？

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工業(yè)革命期間對(duì)農(nóng)業(yè)的影響是使用機(jī)器來(lái)節(jié)省勞動(dòng)力和成本，如蒸汽磨機(jī)、脫粒機(jī)和收割機(jī)。食物變得更便宜了，但許多農(nóng)業(yè)工作崗位流失了，更多的土地被用于耕種。

農(nóng)業(yè)在工業(yè)革命中發(fā)揮了怎樣的作用？

農(nóng)業(yè)在工業(yè)革命中發(fā)揮了重要作用，因?yàn)闄C(jī)械化意味著農(nóng)場(chǎng)工人在城市尋找其他工作，如工廠工作。方法和工具的改進(jìn)也意味著人們可以生產(chǎn)出更多的食物，為不斷增長(zhǎng)的人口提供更便宜的食物。

Agriculture, like most other areas of working life, was greatly affected by the machines invented during the Industrial Revolution. Agriculture in Britain and elsewhere had made leaps forward in the 18th century, and its success released labour for factories in urban areas. From better iron tools to threshing machines, country life was transformed in the never-ceasing search for profit.

與大多數(shù)工作生活領(lǐng)域一樣，農(nóng)業(yè)也受到工業(yè)革命期間發(fā)明的機(jī)器的極大影響。英國(guó)及其他地方的農(nóng)業(yè)在18世紀(jì)實(shí)現(xiàn)了飛躍性的發(fā)展，其成功為城市工廠釋放了勞動(dòng)力。從更好的鐵制工具到脫粒機(jī)，人們以往平淡的鄉(xiāng)村生活變成了對(duì)利潤(rùn)的不懈追求。

蒸汽動(dòng)力在農(nóng)業(yè)中的應(yīng)用

In the 18th century, agricultural activities across the world continued to use people power and animal muscles to make work easier and more efficient. In Europe, and particularly in Britain, the relatively high cost of labour (compared to, for example, Asia), drove inventors to create machines that would make farming cheaper and profits higher by replacing where possible traditional sources of power with machines.

18世紀(jì)，世界各地的農(nóng)業(yè)活動(dòng)繼續(xù)使用人力和動(dòng)物來(lái)使工作變得更容易和更有效率。在歐洲，尤其是英國(guó)，相對(duì)較高的勞動(dòng)力成本（與亞洲等地相比），促使發(fā)明家們創(chuàng)造各種機(jī)器，盡可能用機(jī)器取代傳統(tǒng)的動(dòng)力來(lái)源，以使農(nóng)業(yè)成本更低，利潤(rùn)更高。

A change to a fundamental farming method came with Andrew Rodger's invention of the winnowing machine in Scotland in 1737. For millennia wheat had been separated from chaff by simply throwing the two into the wind and allowing the chaff to blow away. The method was effective enough, but the wind had to be not too weak and not too strong, and those days without wind at all were useless. Rodger's machine worked using an internal fan, and it was capable of separating out the grain, chaff, dust, and straw. The fan was operated by hand, but the machine was another one of those that benefitted from adding a mechanism that used steam power.

1737年，蘇格蘭的安德魯·羅杰 (Andrew Rodger) 發(fā)明了風(fēng)選機(jī)（玉米風(fēng)選機(jī)），從而改變了傳統(tǒng)的農(nóng)業(yè)方式。幾千年來(lái)，人們通過(guò)簡(jiǎn)單地將小麥和谷殼拋向風(fēng)中，讓谷殼被吹走，來(lái)分離小麥和谷殼。這種方法足夠有效，但風(fēng)不能太弱也不能太強(qiáng)，無(wú)風(fēng)天也沒(méi)用。羅杰的機(jī)器使用一個(gè)內(nèi)部風(fēng)扇工作，它能夠分離出谷物、糠、灰塵和稻草。風(fēng)扇是手動(dòng)驅(qū)動(dòng)的，但該機(jī)器是另一臺(tái)受益于結(jié)合使用蒸汽力機(jī)制的機(jī)器。

The first steam engines to be used in agriculture were those attached to mills. Waterwheels had long been in use to move grinding stones to produce flour, but steam engines could now be used as a backup for when the water level of the river powering the waterwheel was low. Windmills had also been around a long time, but better ironwork during the Industrial Revolution meant that pieces like the sails' turning mechanism, brakes, and the fantail (which made sure the sails pointed in the direction of the wind) were better made and more efficient than ever before. From the 1860s, a new method of grinding flour, the roller mill, gradually began to replace windmills after its introduction to Britain from central Europe.

最早用于農(nóng)業(yè)的蒸汽機(jī)是連接在磨坊上的蒸汽機(jī)。長(zhǎng)期以來(lái)，水車一直被用來(lái)推動(dòng)磨石以碾碎谷物，但現(xiàn)在，蒸汽機(jī)可以在為水車提供動(dòng)力的河流水位低時(shí)作為備用。風(fēng)車存在了很長(zhǎng)時(shí)間，但在工業(yè)革命期間，更好的鐵制品意味著像船帆的轉(zhuǎn)動(dòng)裝置、制動(dòng)器和帆尾（確保船帆指向風(fēng)的方向）這樣的部件比以前做得更好、更有效率。從19世紀(jì)60年代起，一種新的磨面機(jī)器，即輥磨機(jī)，在從中歐引入英國(guó)后逐漸開(kāi)始取代風(fēng)車。

By the last quarter of the 18th century, engineers had perfected the steam engine so that it was mobile and fuel-efficient enough to be used anywhere. This mobility of power was particularly useful for agriculture. In 1787, the Scotsman Andrew Meikle (1719-1811) invented the first steam-powered threshing machine (which separates grain from the husk). The machine used a drum with beaters to remove the husk, first using horse or water power and then steam power. It greatly increased the speed at which grain could be threshed. The invention was successful at home and abroad; George Washington (1732-1799) ordered a Meikle threshing machine for his own farm. Another feature of mechanization in the Americas was the introduction of machines on plantations, used, for example, to crush sugar cane. In 1834 in the United States, Cyrus McCormack invented the first mechanized reaping machine. Now a farmer need only hire a machine for when he actually needed it, perhaps only a few weeks in the year.

在 18 世紀(jì)的最后 25 年，工程師們完善了蒸汽機(jī)，使其具有足夠的機(jī)動(dòng)性和燃油效率，可以在任何地方使用。這種動(dòng)力的流動(dòng)性對(duì)農(nóng)業(yè)特別有用。1787年，蘇格蘭人邁克爾·安德魯（1719-1811）發(fā)明了第一臺(tái)以蒸汽為動(dòng)力的脫粒機(jī)（將谷物與谷殼分離）。該機(jī)器使用帶有攪拌器的艙室來(lái)分離谷殼，首先使用馬或水力，然后是蒸汽動(dòng)力。它大大提高了谷物脫粒的速度。這項(xiàng)發(fā)明在國(guó)內(nèi)外都很成功；喬治·華盛頓（1732-1799）曾為自己的農(nóng)場(chǎng)訂購(gòu)了一臺(tái)邁克爾脫粒機(jī)。美洲機(jī)械化的另一個(gè)特點(diǎn)是在種植園引進(jìn)機(jī)器，例如用來(lái)壓榨甘蔗。1834年，塞盧斯·麥考密克發(fā)明了第一臺(tái)機(jī)械化收割機(jī)。農(nóng)民只用在實(shí)際需要的時(shí)候租借機(jī)器，也許一年中只需幾周時(shí)間。

Mobile steam engines were used to pump out waterlogged areas to make them useful for agriculture – a single machine was capable of draining 24 km2 (6000 acres). Drainage trenches were cut using machines, and then pipes were laid down to better drain fields. These works meant areas of common land could be claimed for agricultural use, a process known as enclosure. As technology developed, powerful steam engines could be brought almost anywhere on a farm to uproot trees and hedges to make fields easier and more efficient to plough. Steam power was harnessed, too, for many other tasks such as cutting lumber.

移動(dòng)式蒸汽機(jī)被用于內(nèi)澇地區(qū)，使其對(duì)農(nóng)業(yè)發(fā)展產(chǎn)生益處：一臺(tái)機(jī)器就能排出24平方公里（6000英畝）的水。人們用機(jī)器開(kāi)挖排水溝，然后鋪設(shè)管道，以便更好地排水。這些工程使開(kāi)墾公共土地用于農(nóng)業(yè)成為可能，這一過(guò)程被稱為圈地。隨著技術(shù)的發(fā)展，幾乎可以在農(nóng)場(chǎng)的任何地方使用強(qiáng)大的蒸汽機(jī)來(lái)連根拔起樹(shù)木和樹(shù)籬，并使耕地更容易、更有效。蒸汽動(dòng)力也被用于許多其他任務(wù)，如切割木材。

更好的工具和設(shè)備

Agriculture continued to be a major sector of employment even after the Industrial Revolution swept through Britain. In 1841, "just over 1 in 5, 22 percent of the country's workforce, worked on the land" (Shelley, 44). Even if many of these agricultural jobs still involved working by hand, the tools used were often made by precision machines powered by steam. A long-bladed scythe was found to be much more efficient than the traditional sickle. Horse-drawn ploughs now had more efficient iron blades, seed drills had more hard-wearing parts, and cutting tools had a finer and more durable cutting edge.

即使在工業(yè)革命席卷英國(guó)之后，農(nóng)業(yè)仍然是主要的人員就業(yè)領(lǐng)域。1841年，“該國(guó) 22% 的活躍人口中，每 5 個(gè)人中就有 1 人以上在土地上工作”（Shelley，44）。即使這些農(nóng)業(yè)工作中的許多工作仍然需要手工操作，但使用的工具往往是由蒸汽驅(qū)動(dòng)的精密機(jī)器制造的。人們發(fā)現(xiàn)長(zhǎng)刃鐮刀比傳統(tǒng)的鐮刀更有效率。馬拉犁現(xiàn)在有了更高效的鐵制刀片，播種機(jī)有了更耐磨的部件，切割工具有了更精細(xì)、更耐用的切削刃。

The Rotherham swing plough was invented by Joseph Foljambe in Yorkshire in 1730. This new type of plough was made from cast iron and could better follow the contours of the land. Foljambe's plough became so popular he was soon mass-producing them in a factory near Rotherham. As with other mass-produced tools during the Industrial Revolution, Foljambe ensured that the various parts of his plough could be easily replaced with new parts when broken or worn out. Mass-produced and with a longer life of use, such tools were now more affordable to more farmers.

羅瑟勒姆擺動(dòng)犁是由約克郡的Joseph Foljambe于1730年發(fā)明的。這種新型犁由鑄鐵制成，可以更好地順應(yīng)土地的輪廓。羅瑟勒姆擺動(dòng)犁在當(dāng)時(shí)很受歡迎，Joseph Foljambe很快就在羅瑟勒姆附近的一家工廠里大量生產(chǎn)這種犁。與工業(yè)革命期間其他大規(guī)模生產(chǎn)的工具一樣，F(xiàn)oljambe確保犁的各個(gè)部件在損壞或磨損時(shí)可以很容易地更換為新的部件。大規(guī)模生產(chǎn)和較長(zhǎng)的使用期限，使更多的農(nóng)民能夠負(fù)擔(dān)得起這樣的工具。

The science branch of the Industrial Revolution also made great leaps forward possible for agriculturalists. Scientists took a great interest in farming and how to improve it, which led to the formation of the Royal Agricultural Society in 1842. Joseph Henry Gilbert and John Bennet Lawes extensively tested soil types and plants in their Rothamstead Agricultural Laboratory. The results of these experiments allowed the laboratory to produce much more effective fertilizers, significantly improving crop yields from the 1860s.

工業(yè)革命的科學(xué)分支也使農(nóng)業(yè)工作者的巨大飛躍成為可能?？茖W(xué)家們對(duì)農(nóng)業(yè)和如何改進(jìn)農(nóng)業(yè)產(chǎn)生了極大的興趣，這促使了皇家農(nóng)業(yè)協(xié)會(huì)（1842年）的成立。約瑟夫·亨利·吉爾伯特和約翰·班納特·勞斯在他們的洛瑟姆斯特德農(nóng)業(yè)實(shí)驗(yàn)室廣泛地測(cè)試土壤類型和植物。這些實(shí)驗(yàn)的結(jié)果使實(shí)驗(yàn)室能夠生產(chǎn)出更有效的肥料，從19世紀(jì)60年代起顯著提高了作物的產(chǎn)量。

后? ? ?續(xù)

Mechanization in agriculture reduced labour costs and so the cost, too, of foodstuffs; people ate more and better food with a direct consequence on life expectancy, particularly of children. As farming became more profitable, there were more and more cases of enclosure as people searched for more wealth. Sometimes land was claimed in this way against the wishes of the local people, since, by law, consent of 80% of the population was required, but that might be met if a single large landowner acquiesced to the enclosure. In 55 years from 1760 to 1815, over 28,300 km2 (7 million acres) of British communal land was enclosed. Further, as land was made better for farming thanks to drainage projects, rents rocketed, which meant many small-scale farmers were forced to move elsewhere or try a different profession.

農(nóng)業(yè)機(jī)械化降低了勞動(dòng)力成本，因此也降低了食品成本；人們吃得更多更好，這對(duì)預(yù)期壽命有直接影響，尤其是對(duì)兒童而言。隨著農(nóng)業(yè)變得更加有利可圖，人們?yōu)榱藢で蟾嗟呢?cái)富，出現(xiàn)了越來(lái)越多的圈地行為。有時(shí)，土地的征用會(huì)違背了當(dāng)?shù)厝说囊庠?，因?yàn)楦鶕?jù)法律規(guī)定，需要80%的人口同意，但如果有一個(gè)大地主默許圈地，就可以滿足這一要求。從1760年到1815年的55年間，超過(guò)28,300平方公里（700萬(wàn)英畝）的英國(guó)公有土地被圈占。此外，由于排水工程使土地更適合耕作，農(nóng)業(yè)土地租金急劇上升，這意味著許多小規(guī)模的農(nóng)民被迫遷往其他地方或嘗試不同的職業(yè)。

A knock-on effect of industrialization was caused by the great technological developments in transport, especially the railways and steamships. As transport networks became wider, denser, and cheaper, so the goods which were transported became cheaper. Less expensive grains came to Britain from the United States and Canada. This was a much-needed development since, despite the improvement in agricultural yields at home, they could not meet the appetite of a booming population. A second technological innovation with far-reaching consequences was the invention of refrigerated transport, which meant that meat could be shipped to Britain from as far afield as Argentina, Australia, and New Zealand. Produced on vast farmlands in these countries, the imported meat was cheaper than British-grown meat. By the 1780s, Britain had moved from being a net exporter of foodstuffs to a net importer, and the deficit kept on growing into the next century. Cheaper goods was one of the contributing factors to the Great Depression in agriculture in 1873.

交通運(yùn)輸技術(shù)的巨大進(jìn)步，尤其是鐵路和輪船，引起了工業(yè)化的多米諾骨牌效應(yīng)。隨著運(yùn)輸網(wǎng)絡(luò)變得更廣泛、更密集、更便宜，所運(yùn)輸?shù)呢浳镆沧兊孟鄬?duì)便宜。價(jià)格較低的谷物從美國(guó)和加拿大運(yùn)到英國(guó)。這是一個(gè)急需的突破，因?yàn)楸M管該國(guó)的農(nóng)業(yè)產(chǎn)量有所提高，但仍無(wú)法滿足不斷增長(zhǎng)的人口的需求。第二項(xiàng)具有深遠(yuǎn)影響的技術(shù)革新是冷藏運(yùn)輸?shù)陌l(fā)明，這意味著肉類可以從遠(yuǎn)在阿根廷、澳大利亞和新西蘭的地方運(yùn)到英國(guó)。在這些國(guó)家生產(chǎn)的進(jìn)口肉比英國(guó)本土生產(chǎn)的肉更便宜。到18世紀(jì)80年代，英國(guó)已經(jīng)從一個(gè)食品凈出口國(guó)變成了一個(gè)凈進(jìn)口國(guó)，而且這一逆差在下個(gè)世紀(jì)繼續(xù)增長(zhǎng)。更便宜的商品是導(dǎo)致1873年農(nóng)業(yè)大蕭條的因素之一。

The 1851 census in Britain revealed that, for the first time, more people were living in towns and cities than in the countryside. The rise of mechanized factories in the bigger cities, particularly in the textile industry, lured many agricultural workers to a better and more stable living in urban areas. These labourers were given a further incentive to move homes by the increased mechanization of farming and the consequent decrease in jobs. The success of agriculture, what some have termed the Agricultural Revolution that preceded and overlapped the Industrial Revolution, meant that it could withstand this loss of labour. Indeed, some historians have argued that only because agriculture was so efficient in Britain could the Industrial Revolution have taken place. This point that British agriculture helped the industrialization of Britain to begin earlier than elsewhere is summarised by J. Horn:

Agriculture represented an enormous and continuing comparative advantage. At the dawn of the industrial age, the output per worker of British agriculture was one-third greater than France's and twice that of Russia, while Europe enjoyed double the productivity of any other part of the world. By 1851, British output per worker was twice that of any contemporary European state. Not only did high agriculture productivity foster effective work habits throughout the population, but it also released labour.(68)

英國(guó)1851年的人口普查顯示，居住在城市的人口首次超過(guò)鄉(xiāng)村人口。大城市機(jī)械化工廠的興起，特別是紡織業(yè)的興起，吸引了許多農(nóng)業(yè)從事者到城市地區(qū)享受更好、更穩(wěn)定的生活。農(nóng)業(yè)機(jī)械化程度的提高和隨之而來(lái)的工作崗位減少為這些勞動(dòng)者改變住所提供了額外的動(dòng)力。農(nóng)業(yè)的成功，即一些人所說(shuō)的在工業(yè)革命之前并與之重疊的農(nóng)業(yè)革命，意味著它可以承受這種勞動(dòng)力的流失。事實(shí)上，一些歷史學(xué)家認(rèn)為，正是因?yàn)橛?guó)的農(nóng)業(yè)非常高效，工業(yè)革命才有可能發(fā)生。J.霍恩對(duì)英國(guó)農(nóng)業(yè)幫助英國(guó)比其他地方更早開(kāi)始工業(yè)化這一點(diǎn)進(jìn)行了總結(jié)：

農(nóng)業(yè)代表著巨大而持續(xù)的比較優(yōu)勢(shì)。在工業(yè)時(shí)代來(lái)臨之際，英國(guó)農(nóng)業(yè)的人均產(chǎn)出比法國(guó)高三分之一，是俄國(guó)的兩倍，而歐洲的生產(chǎn)力是世界上任何其他地區(qū)的兩倍。到1851年，英國(guó)每個(gè)工人的產(chǎn)出是任何當(dāng)代歐洲國(guó)家的兩倍。高農(nóng)業(yè)生產(chǎn)率不僅培養(yǎng)了全體人口的高效工作習(xí)慣，還解放了勞動(dòng)力。

As in other areas of the economy in the Industrial Revolution where one area of working life boosted another, the success of agriculture allowed for the growth in mechanized factories in urban areas, which caused a growth in population which, in turn, created a greater market for agricultural products, further boosting the farming industry. The historian R. C. Allens argues that it was the latter relationship which was more important, "The city drove the countryside – not the reverse" (58). Although Allen also recognizes that greater efficiency in agriculture was essential to help feed the growing cities: "By 1800 each English farm worker produced enough to support two workers in manufacturing and services" (ibid).

正如工業(yè)革命中經(jīng)濟(jì)的其他領(lǐng)域一樣，一個(gè)領(lǐng)域的發(fā)展會(huì)促進(jìn)另一個(gè)領(lǐng)域的發(fā)展，農(nóng)業(yè)的成功使城市地區(qū)的機(jī)械化工廠得以發(fā)展，這造成了人口的增長(zhǎng)，反過(guò)來(lái)又為農(nóng)產(chǎn)品創(chuàng)造了更大的市場(chǎng)，進(jìn)一步促進(jìn)農(nóng)業(yè)的發(fā)展。歷史學(xué)家R.C.Allens認(rèn)為，后一種關(guān)系更為重要，“城市為鄉(xiāng)村提供了動(dòng)力，而不是相反”?（58）。盡管Allens也承認(rèn)，提高農(nóng)業(yè)效率對(duì)于幫助養(yǎng)活不斷增長(zhǎng)的城市人口是至關(guān)重要的：“到 1800 年，每個(gè)英國(guó)農(nóng)場(chǎng)工人的產(chǎn)量足以養(yǎng)活兩名從事制造業(yè)和服務(wù)業(yè)的工人”（同上）。

There were some who fought back against the changes in British country life. Just like the Luddites, the handweavers who smashed textile machines that took away their livelihood in cities, so, too, farm labourers attacked, for example, the new threshing machines. One period of wrecking was particularly intense and became known as the Swing Riots (after their legendary leader Captain Swing) of 1830 to 1832. The Swing Rioters might have won the public's sympathy, but the government was determined on 'progress' so that hundreds were imprisoned, transported, or hanged while the pitiless machines kept on turning regardless in the fields, just as they did in the factories.

有些人反對(duì)英國(guó)農(nóng)村生活的變化。就像Luddites（手織者）一樣，他們?cè)覛Я藠Z走他們?cè)诔鞘兄猩?jì)的紡織機(jī)，同樣，一些農(nóng)場(chǎng)工人也摧毀了新的打谷機(jī)。有一個(gè)時(shí)期的破壞活動(dòng)特別激烈，被稱為1830年至1832年的“斯溫暴動(dòng)”（以其傳奇性的領(lǐng)導(dǎo)人斯溫上尉的名字命名）。斯溫暴動(dòng)者可能贏得了公眾的同情，但政府決心要實(shí)現(xiàn)“進(jìn)步”，因此數(shù)以百計(jì)的人被監(jiān)禁、押送或絞死，而無(wú)情的機(jī)器在田間繼續(xù)轉(zhuǎn)動(dòng)，就像它們?cè)诠S里一樣。

參考書(shū)目：

Allen, Robert C. The British Industrial Revolution in Global Perspective . Cambridge University Press, 2009.

Armstrong, Benjamin. Britain 1783-1885 . Hodder Education, 2020.

Dugan, Sally & Dugan, David. The Day the World Took Off. Channel 4 Book, 2023.

Forty, Simon. 100 Innovations of the Industrial Revolution. Haynes Publishing UK, 2019.

Hepplewhite, Peter. All About. Wayland, 2016.

Jeff Horn & Leonard N Rosenband & Merritt Roe Smith. Reconceptualizing the Industrial Revolution . MIT Press, 2010.

Yorke, Stan. The Industrial Revolution Explained& Massive Wheels. Countryside Books, 2005.

原文作者：Mark Cartwright

駐意大利的歷史作家。他的主要興趣包括陶瓷、建筑、世界神話和發(fā)現(xiàn)所有文明的共同思想。他擁有政治哲學(xué)碩士學(xué)位，是《世界歷史百科全書(shū)》的出版總監(jiān)。

原文網(wǎng)址：https://www.worldhistory.org/article/2191/agriculture-in-the-british-industrial-revolution/